Les archives déclassifiées (1): Freedom of Information Act

Parmi les nombreuses sources d’archives accessibles en ligne, les archives déclassifiées prennent une place particulière. Tout d’abord au niveau quantitatif, chaque déclassification apportant son lot important de nouvelles sources. Mais aussi en raison du processus d’acquisition de ces archives.

Cet article est le premier d’une série sur les archives déclassifiées aux Etats-Unis mais aussi en France. Aux-Etats-Unis tout d’abord, en raison de la spécificité du système instauré par le Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), permettant l’obtention d’informations jusque-là classées confidentielles. En France ensuite, à travers les cas de demandes de déclassification auprès de la Commission consultative du secret de la Défense nationale (CCSDN) ou encore des archives Mitterrand.

Le Freedom of Information Act

Le Freedom Information Act, ou loi pour la liberté d’information, fut voté le 4 juillet 1966 par le président Lyndon Johnson. Elle oblige les agences fédérales à transmettre leurs documents, à quiconque en fait la demande. L’association National Security Archive (archives de la sécurité nationale), située au sein de l’Université Georges Washington, se charge de conserver mais aussi de demander la déclassification de documents par l’administration américaine.

En août 2001, la National Security Archive publiait sur son site un briefing book sur le rôle joué par les Etats-Unis pendant le génocide au Rwanda. Comme l’indiquait alors William Ferrogiaro en charge de ce programme et dont je traduis le propos, les documents déclassifiés montraient que:

-contrairement à des déclarations publiques antérieures, les Etats-Unis avaient fait pression sur l’ONU pour un retrait total des forces de l’ONU au Rwanda en avril 1994

-le secrétaire d’Etat Christopher Warren n’a autorisé les responsables américains à utiliser le terme de génocide qu’à partir du 21 mai 1994. Malgré cela, les responsables américains durent attendre encore trois semaines avant de pouvoir utiliser le terme en public

-les conflits internes à la bureaucratie américaine ont ralenti la réaction face au génocide

-les Etats-Unis ont refusé de brouiller les émetteurs de la radio RTLM pour des raisons financières mais aussi en raison d’inquiétudes sur le respect du droit international

-Les responsables américains savaient qui conduisait le génocide et discutaient avec eux afin de mettre fin aux violences.

Seize documents déclassifiés sont mis en ligne en  2001 et renseignent sur ce que savaient les Etats-Unis au cours de cette période. Très peu de temps après leur mise en ligne, Samantha Power publiait dans the Atlantic un important article sur la politique  américaine au Rwanda pendant le génocide¹. De nombreux documents ont été déclassifiés et commentés par la suite, que ce soit en mars 2004 ou en avril 2004. A partir de ce fonds, il est possible de mieux comprendre la politique d’inaction américaine pendant le génocide. Et il est bien difficile de comprendre la rationalité des nombreux textes se donnant pour mission de prouver que les Etats-Unis avaient préparé dès les années 1980 un plan de domination géopolitique de la région.

Notons qu’une comparaison des différences d’action politique au niveau international pendant le génocide serait particulièrement pertinente. Ainsi, il est intéressant de voir qu’un pays comme la République Tchèque, sans intérêt géopolitique spécifique dans la région de l’Afrique des Grands-Lacs, essaya en 1994 de changer le cours des débats du Conseil de Sécurité sur le Rwanda².

Enfin, au-delà du contenu même des ces documents sur le Rwanda, le processus d’acquisition est lui aussi important. La NSA s’est ainsi rendu compte du fonctionnement erratique de l’institution en charge du déclassement. En effet, certains documents ont été déclassifiés de façon différente à chaque demande publique.

The US Department of State

Le département d’Etat américain a mis en place un site internet dédié au Freedom of Information Act, présentant les modalités d’obtention d’information, un guide des sources déclassifiées mais aussi divers rapports. Ce site présente aussi un lien vers l’Open Government Initiative, une initiative visant à penser la question de la transparence des informations sur Internet. Cette question complexe s’est enrichie ces dernières années des débats autour de Wikileaks ou encore de l’affaire Snowden. Plus récemment, les propos d’un père fondateur d’Internet, Vint Cerf, sur la vie privée comme anomalie ont relancé cette question.

En 2012, le département d’Etat américain mettait en ligne une collection spécifique sur le Rwanda (Rwanda declassification collection) comprenant plus de 2000 documents. Mais récemment, pour des raisons que j’ignore, il n’est plus possible d’y accéder directement. Il faut passer par d’autres options, comme l’inutilisable Virtual reading room. Il est possible aussi de trouver une version de ce fonds un peu plus facilement sur Scribd, mais cette solution reste peu pratique.

Au-delà de sa soudaine disparition, il est étrange que les documents qui ont été alors publiés ne circulent pas plus, sachant pourtant qu’ils étaient présentées de façon extrêmement claire. Ayant pu faire en mai 2013 une copie intégrale des pages concernées, je mets en fin de page le descriptif en anglais des documents déclassifiés ainsi qu’un inventaire des documents.

Comme l’indiquent les informations alors produites sur le site du département d’Etat américain, cette collection ne concerne pas uniquement le génocide au Rwanda mais aussi de façon générale l’histoire de l’Afrique des Grands-Lacs.  La question des réfugiés rwandais au Zaïre est ainsi fort documentée, deux ans après la parution du Mapping report (qui mériterait un véritable article). Ce dernier point est particulièrement nouveau, au vu de la documentation mise en ligne sur le massacre commis à Kibeho le 22 avril 1995 par le FPR. Ce dernier, bien que reconnu par le nouveau gouvernement d’Union nationale, fait l’objet d’un certain tabou mémoriel mais aussi historique.
Son impact est pourtant tout sauf négligeable. D’une part en raison de la réalité même du massacre et de ses conséquences sur le retour au Rwanda des réfugiés rwandais vivant alors dans les pays de l’Afrique des Grands-Lacs. D’autre part pour son impact sur la construction intellectuelle sur le Rwanda. Il apparaît évident que le massacre de Kibeho entraîne une rupture radicale entre ceux qui continuent à soutenir le nouveau gouvernement d’Union nationale et ceux qui s’y refusent. Cette rupture se lit encore aujourd’hui dans de nombreux travaux.

De façon générale, ce fonds permet de rappeler que la violence au Rwanda ne s’arrête pas en 1994 mais continue jusqu’à la fin des années 1990. L’évolution politique et la pacification du Rwanda à partir de l’élection à la présidence de Paul Kagamé apparaît évidente.

La collection de documents propose aussi de nombreux documents inédits sur les Accords de paix d’Arusha, la Minuar, le génocide ou encore les crimes de guerre.  Les documents sur le génocide sont particulièrement importants, ainsi que ceux sur la mise en place du Tribunal Pénal International

Bien sûr, ces archives déclassifiées posent questions aux historiens. Comment les utiliser? Comment les citer? Comment savoir les raisons de leur déclassification? Quels documents restent classifiés? Tous ces faits doivent être pris en compte. Mais, en complément d’un travail sur le Rwanda pré et post-génocide, ces documents s’avèrent précieux et l’on peut espérer qu’ils seront plus utilisés à l’avenir.

PS: Je joins ici l’inventaire des documents et la description des fonds, telle qu’elle était accessible en mai 2013

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The Rwandan Declassification Collection not only concerns Rwanda, but many of the other states in Central Africa and the African Great Lake region. The Rwandan Genocide (as well as civil war in Burundi) created a huge population of refugees and displaced persons that contributed to the destabilization of the entire region. The role of the international community and its response to events in Rwanda is described throughout the collection, including the actions of Belgium and France; the United Nations (UN), the Organization of African Unity (OAU), and the European Union (EU); non-government organizations; and the United States.

1.Arusha Accords and the Peace Process – this collection consists of documents concerning peace negotiations between the government of Rwanda and the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) to end the Rwandan Civil War that began in October 1990 when the RPF invaded Rwanda from neighboring Uganda. The collection begins in April 1992 with the announcement by Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana of a new multi-party transition government and concludes with the signing of the Arusha Accords in Arusha, Tanzania in August 1993.

2.Transition and the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) – this collection consists of documents concerning the implementation of the Arusha Accords (which provided the blueprint for a 22-month transition period ending in multi-party democratic national elections) and the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) to help implement the plan. The collection begins just after the signing of the Arusha Accords in August 1993 and ends with the death of Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundian President Cyprien Ntaryamira in a plane crash on April 6, 1994.

3.The Rwandan Genocide – this collection of documents concerns the mass murder of an estimated 800,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutus in Rwanda between April and July 1994 after an airplane carrying Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundian President Cyprien Ntaryamira was shot down as it prepared to land in Kigali, Rwanda on April 6. The genocide did not end until the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), composed mostly of Tutsi, defeated the Hutu dominated militias and government forces of Rwanda in July 1994. The collection includes material covering the reaction of and the actions by the international community, particularly the Belgians and French.

4.War Crimes, Human Rights Monitors, and the International Tribunal for Rwanda – this collection concerns the establishment of the International Tribunal for Rwanda for the prosecution of persons responsible for genocide and other serious violations of international humanitarian law. The collection includes documents on the detention of Rwandan war criminals, arrests and prison conditions, developing a justice system in Rwanda, and the United Nations Human Rights Field Operation in Rwanda.

5.Internal Displacement and the Great Lakes Refugee Crisis

These collections contain material on the humanitarian disaster facing a large number of displaced individuals throughout the African Great Lakes Region following the Rwandan Genocide. The documents in these collections include information on the response to the crisis by the international community, including relief efforts by France, the United States, the United Nations, and non-government organizations. These collections concern the efforts to bring stability to Rwanda; to create conditions for repatriation; security in refugee and internally displaced persons (IDP) camps; and the increased instability throughout the Great Lakes Region, particularly Zaire (Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Burundi.

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This collection consists of documents concerning peace negotiations between the government of Rwanda and the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) to end the Rwandan Civil War that began in October 1990 when the RPF invaded Rwanda from neighboring Uganda. The collection begins in April 1992 with the announcement by Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana of a new multiparty transition government and concludes with the signing of the Arusha Accords in Arusha, Tanzania in August 1993.

1.1.Tranche I – this part of the collection concerns the establishment of peace negotiations and the first four rounds of talks between the government of Rwanda and the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) to end the civil war in Rwanda.

1.2.Tranche II – this part of the collection includes material relating to the conditions in Rwanda during peace negotiations between the government of Rwanda and the RPF and documents concerning the role of the international community, including the United States.

1.2.3.Tranche III – this part of the collection includes documents on French security concerns for Rwanda and the role of the Organization for African Unity (OAU) and the United Nations (UN) as peace negotiations continue. This tranche also includes documents concerning discussions on a possible peacekeeping force for Rwanda.

2.Transition and the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR)

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This collection consists of documents concerning the implementation of the Arusha Accords (which provided the blueprint for a 22-month transition period ending in multi-party democratic national elections) and the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) to help implement the plan. The collection begins just after the signing of the Arusha Accords in August 1993 and ends with the death of Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundian President Cyprien Ntaryamira in a plane crash on April 6, 1994.

2.1.Tranche I – this part of the collection concerns the difficulties in implementing the Arusha Peace Accord, the establishment of a Neutral International Force (NIF) to provide security and help to implement the peace accord, and the visit of President Habyarimana to the United States.

2.2.Tranche II – this part of the collection begins with the initial deployment of the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) to, among other responsibilities, contribute to the security of Kigali and monitor the ceasefire. This portion of the Collection also includes documents concerning attacks on civilians, refugees from Burundi, and human rights reporting. The tranche ends in early January 1994 with President Habyarimana taking the oath of office under the Arusha Peace Accord.

2.3.Tranche III – this part of the collection includes documents concerning the continued delays in installing transition institutions, repatriation of refugees returning to Rwanda, and the expansion of the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR).

2.4.Tranche IV – this part of the collection includes documents concerning the increased anxiety among U.S. Personnel, increased demonstrations and violence, and the continuing conflict in Burundi.

3.The Rwandan Genocide

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This collection of documents concerns the mass murder of an estimated 800,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutus in Rwanda between April and July 1994 after an airplane carrying Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundian President Cyprien Ntaryamira was shot down as it prepared to land in Kigali, Rwanda on April 6. The genocide did not end until the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), composed mostly of Tutsi, defeated the Hutu dominated militias and government forces of Rwanda in July 1994. The collection includes material covering the reaction of and the actions by the international community, particularly the Belgians and French.

3.1.April
Rwanda Monitoring Group Situation Reports (04/07/94 – 04/15/94)
April 7 – 11
April 12 – 19
April 20 – 30

3.2.May
May 1 – 6
May 7 – 15
May 16 – 24
May 25 – 31

3.3.June
June 1 – 10
June 11 – 20
June 21 – 30

3.4.July
July 1 – 12
July 13 – 20

4.War Crimes, Human Rights Monitors, and the International Tribunal for Rwanda

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War Crimes, Human Rights Monitors, and the International Tribunal for Rwanda – this collection concerns the establishment of the International Tribunal for Rwanda for the prosecution of persons responsible for genocide and other serious violations of international humanitarian law. The collection includes documents on the detention of Rwandan war criminals, arrests and prison conditions, developing a justice system in Rwanda, and the United Nations Human Rights Field Operation in Rwanda.

4.1.Tranche I – this part of the collection concerns reports of human rights abuses and the establishment and support for a Rwanda War Crimes Tribunal to prosecute violations of international humanitarian law and laws against genocide.  This tranche includes documents concerning preliminary investigations into human rights violations and efforts to promote human rights and reconciliation.

4.2.Tranche II – this part of the collection concerns reports of human rights abuses by the military wing of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), issues concerning the UN’s Human Rights Field Officers, and gathering international support for a Rwanda War Crimes Tribunal.  This tranche ends with the adoption by the Security Council of the United Nations of Resolution 955 establishing a Rwandan war crimes tribunal in November 1994.

4.3.Tranche III – this part of the collection concerns the planning for and establishment of the International Tribunal for Rwanda.  This tranche includes material on the United Nations Human Rights Field Operation in Rwanda and the United Nations Resolution on Detention of Rwandan War Criminals.  This part of the collection also covers Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor John Shattuck’s visit to Rwanda.

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These collections contain material on the humanitarian disaster facing a large number of displaced individuals throughout the African Great Lakes Region following the Rwandan Genocide.  The documents in these collections include information on the response to the crisis by the international community, including relief efforts by France, the United States, the United Nations, and non-government organizations. These collections concern the efforts to bring stability to Rwanda; to create conditions for repatriation; security in refugee and internally displaced persons (IDP) camps; and increased instability throughout the Great Lakes Region, particularly Zaire (Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Burundi.

5.1.Operation Turquoise, UNAMIR II, and Operation Support Hope

5.1.1Tranche I – this part of the collection concerns the decision by President William Clinton to greatly increase U.S. military humanitarian relief operations named Operation Support Hope and appeals by UN Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali for assistance for the people affected by the crisis in Rwanda. This trance includes discussions between the U.S. and France, particularly concerning equipment for the United Nations Mission in Rwanda (UNAMIR).

5.1.2.Tranche II – this part of the collection concerns the contributions by various nations in relief efforts for refugees and the UN Pledging Conference for Rwanda. This tranche begins with the U.S. military securing Kigali Airport for relief flights.

5.1.3.Tranche III – this part of the collection concerns the transition from Operation Turquoise to an expanded UNAMIR; security issues in refugee camps; and the volatile situation in Burundi. This tranche also concerns funding issues, discussions on forming Friends of Rwanda and Friends of Burundi groups, and the drawdown of Operation Support Hope.

5.2.Camp Security and the Rwanda Operational Support Group

5.2.1.Tranche I – this part of the collection concerns efforts to ensure security in the refugee camps and discussions on forming “Friends” groups for Rwanda and Burundi. This tranche includes documents concerning refugee relief funds and contributing supplies and troops for UNAMIR. Also included in this tranche are discussions between U.S. officials and the international community, including the French, Belgians, and Rwandans, as well as discussions within the United Nations.

5.2.2.Tranche II – this part of the collection concerns the formation and first meetings of the Rwanda Operational Support Group and discussions concerning a regional refugee conference. This tranche includes material on refugee camp security, conditions of refugee camps in Zaire, repatriation, and the continuing role of the UNAMIR. This tranche also covers meetings between U.S. officials and Rwandan Prime Minister Faustin Twagiramungu.

5.2.3.Tranche III – this part of the collection concerns Vice President and Minister of Defense Paul Kagame’s visit to the U.S., Rwanda Operational Support meetings, and meetings between U.S. officials and the European Union and the Organization of African Unity. This tranche includes material on consultations with the French and Belgians concerning Zaire and Rwanda; the increased militarization of refugee camps, attempts to close internally displaced person camps; and continuing concerns over Burundi.

5.2.4.Tranche IV – this part of the collection concerns the Bujumbura Regional Conference on Assistance to Refugees, Returnees, and Displaced Persons. This tranche also concerns arms flow to Hutu paramilitary groups and former government forces in refugee camps in Zaire, increased arrests and prison crowding, and tensions between the UNAMIR and the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA).

5.3.Kibeho and the Government of National Unity

5.3.1.Tranche I – this part of the collection concerns violence within refugee and internally displaced persons camps, including Kibeho; the rearming of Hutu militants; and re-examining the mandate of the UNAMIR. This tranche also contains information on contingency plans for Burundi in the event of another humanitarian disaster.

5.3.2.Tranche II – this part of the collection concerns border security, reports of illegal arms trafficking to former Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR), and UNAMIR’s new mandate. This tranche includes material on cross-border attacks from Zaire and discussions with the French regarding allegations of French support for former members of the FAR.

5.3.3.Tranche III – this part of the collection concerns the Rwandan arms embargo, the security situation in Burundi, continuing raids from Hutu exiles, and forced repatriation of Rwanda refugees from Zaire. This tranche ends with the reshuffling of the government of Rwanda and resignation/removal of Prime Minister Faustin Twagiramungu.

1. Power Samantha, « Bystanders to genocide », Atlantic Monthly, 2001, vol. 288, nᵒ 2, pp. 84‑108. Voir aussi Power Samantha, A problem from hell: America and the age of genocide, New York, Basic Books, 2002 ou encore Melvern Linda, Complicités de génocide: Comment le monde a trahi le Rwanda, KARTHALA Editions, 2010, 458 p. [↩]
2. Kovanda Karel, « The Czech Republic on the UN Security Council: The Rwandan Genocide1 », Genocide Studies and Prevention, août 2010, vol. 5, nᵒ 2, pp. 192‑218 [↩]

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